POLYSEMY

Polysemy

Polysemy is the association of one word with two or more distinct meanings. A polyseme is a word or phrase with multiple meanings. Adjective: polysemous or polysemic. usually related by contiguity of meaning within a semantic field. It is thus usually regarded as distinct from homonymy, in which the multiple meanings of a word may be unconnected or unrelated.

A polyseme is a word or phrase with different, but related senses. Since the test for polysemy is the vague concept of relatedness, judgments of polysemy can be difficult to make. Because applying pre-existing words to new situations is a natural process of language change, looking at words' etymology is helpful in determining polysemy but not the only solution; as words become lost in etymology, what once was a useful distinction of meaning may no longer be so.

In vertical polysemy a word refers to a member of a subcategory (e.g., 'dog' for 'male dog'). A closely related idea is metonym, in which a word with one original meaning is used to refer to something else connected to it.

Examples

Man

1.The human species (i.e., man vs. animal)

2.Males of the human species (i.e., man vs. woman)

3.Adult males of the human species (i.e., man vs. boy)

Mole

a small burrowing mammal

Bank

the building where a financial institution offers services

Book

a bound collection of pages

Newspaper

the newspaper as an edited work in a specific format (e.g. "They changed the layout of the newspaper's front page").

The different meanings can be combined in a single sentence, e.g. "John used to work for the newspaper that you are reading."

Milk

The verb milk (e.g. "he's milking it for all he can get") derives from the process of obtaining milk.

Wood

a piece of a tree

Crane

a bird

 

References

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polysemy

http://grammar.about.com/od/pq/g/polysemyterm.htm

HYPERBOLE

Hyperbole

Hyperbole, derived from a Greek word meaning “over-casting” is a figure of speech, which involves anexaggeration of ideas for the sake of emphasis.

It is a device that we employ in our day-to-day speech. For instance, when you meet a friend after a long time, you say, “Ages have passed since I last saw you”. You may not have met him for three or four hours or a day, but the use of the word “ages” exaggerates this statement to add emphasis to your wait.  Therefore, a hyperbole is an unreal exaggeration to emphasize the real situation. Some other common Hyperbole examples are given below.

Common Examples of Hyperbole:

• My grandmother is as old as the hills.
• Your suitcase weighs a ton!
• She is as heavy as an elephant!
• I am dying of shame.
• I am trying to solve a million issues these days.

It is important not to confuse hyperbole with simile and metaphor. It does make a comparison but unlikesimile and metaphor, hyperbole has a humorous effect created by an overstatement.

Let us see some examples from Classical English literature in which hyperbole was used successfully.

Hyperbole may also be used for instances of such exaggerations for emphasis or effect. Hyperboles are often used in casual speech as intensifiers,  such as saying "the bag weighed a ton".  Hyperbole makes the point that the speaker found the bag to be extremely heavy, although it was nothing like a literal ton.^, Understanding hyperboles and their use in context can further one's ability to understand the messages being sent from the speaker. It has been established that use of hyperboles relays emotions. Hyperbole can be used in a form of humour, excitement, distress, and many other emotions, all depending on the context in which the speaker uses it.

REFERENCES

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbole

http://literarydevices.net/hyperbole/

collocation

COLLOCATION

A collocation is a familiar grouping of word, especially words that habitually appear together and thereby convey meaning by association.

collocational range refers to the set of items that typically accompany a word. The size of a collocational range is partially determined by a word's level of specificity and number of meanings. 

The term collocation (from the Latin for "place together") was first used in its linguistic sense by British linguist John Rupert Firth (1890-1960), who famously observed, "You shall know a word by the company it keeps."

Examples and Observations:

> Once upon a time there was a Martian named Valentine Michael Smith." (Robert Heinlein, Stranger in a Strange Land, 1961) 

 > The Wheel of Fortune Lexicon
 Collocations and clichés are strings of words that are remembered as wholes and often used together, such as gone with the wind or like two peas in a pod.

·         >  Predictability of Collocations
"Every lexemes has collocations, but some are much more predictable than others. Blond collocates strongly with hair, flock with sheep, neigh with horse.

·         >  Collocational Range
"Two main factors can influence the collocational range of an item (Beekman and Callow, 1974). The first is its level of specificity: the more general a word is, the broader its collocational range; the more specific it is, the more restricted its collocational range.

·         >  The Lighter Side: George carlin on Collocations in Advertising
"Quality, value, style,
service, selection, convenience,
economy, savings, performance,
experience, hospitality,
low rates, friendly service,
name brands, easy terms,
affordable prices, money-back guarantee,
free installation.

"Free admission, free appraisal, free alterations,
free delivery, free estimates,
free home trial--and free parking.

Reference :

http://grammar.about.com/od/c/g/collocationterm.htm

SYNONYM,ANTONYM,AND HOMONYM

Synonyms

Synonyms are words that have the same or very similar meaning. All words can have a synonym. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and prepositions can have a synonym as long as both words are the same part of speech.

Examples of Synonyms:

Adjectives: beautiful, lovely, gorgeous, stunning, striking

Nouns: House, home, dwelling, residence, abode, quarters

Verbs: jump, bound, leap, hop, skip

Prepositions: in, inside, within

Antonyms

Antonyms are words that have opposite meanings. For example, the antonym of long is short. Often words will have more than one antonym but as with synonyms it depends on the context. For instance, the word warm could have the antonym cool or chilly. In order to choose the correct antonym, you have to look at all the meanings and how the word is used. Cool can mean stylish as well as chilly so the word cool may not be the best choice.

Types of Antonyms:

1.Graded antonyms are word pairs that have variations between the two opposites.

a.       Sane and crazy

b.      Rich and poor

c.       Cool and hot

d.      Wet and dry

e.       Late and early

f.       Ignorant and educated

2. Relational antonyms are pairs that have a relationship.

       a. Servant and master

       b. Borrow and lend     

       c. parent and child

3.      Complimentary antonyms are word pairs that have no degree of meaning.

         a. Leave and arrive

         b. Pre and post

         c. Question and answer

        d. Single and married

        e. Hired and fired

       4. Adding a Prefix

Sometimes, an antonym can be easily made by adding a prefix.

Examples of antonyms that were made by adding the prefix “un” are:

         a.Likely and unlike

         b. Able and unable

By adding the prefix “non” you can make these pairs:

          a. Entity and nonentity

          b. Conformist and nonconformist

Lastly, adding the prefix “in” can make the following pairs:

          a. Tolerant and intolerant

           b. Decent and indecent

           c. Discreet and indiscreet

           d.Excusable and inexcusable

Homonym

Two or more word have that the same sound or speeling but the different meaning. Generally, the term homonym refers both to homophones (words that are pronounced the same but have different meanings, such as pair and pear) and to homogrhaps (words that are spelled the same but have different meanings, such as "bow your head" and "tied in a bow").

For example: the word “right” can related to the directional right or it can also mean correct if you.

Hyponym

In linguitics, a hyponym is a specific term used to designate a member of a broader class. For instance, daisy and rose are hyponyms of flower. Also called a subtype or a subordinate term. Adjective: hyponymic.

REFERENCES

http://www.infobarrel.com/Word_Associations_What_are_Synonyms_Antonyms_Homonyms_Hyponyms_and_Hypernyms

http://grammar.about.com/od/fh/g/hyponymterm.htm

ekarisqilatul.blogspot.com/.../synonym-antonym-hypernym-hyponym-homonym_9.html

METAPHOR, SIMILE, AND SYMBOLISM

Methapor

Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between two things that are unrelated but share some common characteristics. In other words, a resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some common characteristics.

Example:

1.She froze with fear.

2.She has a bubbly personality

3.The internet is the information super highway

4.Time is money.

Simile

A simile is a figure of speech that makes a comparison, showing similarities between two different things. Unlike a methapor, a simile draws resemblance with the help of the words “like” or “as”. Therefore, it is a direct comparison.

Example:

1.She is as sweet as pie

2.The street felt as hot as the surface of the sun.

3.This pudding is as smooth as silk.

4.It flew as high as a kite.

Symbolism

Symbolism is the use of symbols to signify ideas and qualities by giving them symbolic meanings that are different from their literal sense.

Example:

1.Using a red rose to show love

2.Using a storm cloud to show something bad is about to happen

3.Using the sun coming out to show the bad times are over

4.Using a road trip to show the protagonist is searching to find out about himself .

Conclusion

So we know , Saying one object IS something that it really can't be, Comparing things that at first don't seem similar using "like" or "as" or "than",Using a word to stand for something with a deeper meaning.

References

http://literarydevices.net/metaphor/

http://literarydevices.net/simile/

http://literarydevices.net/symbolism/

https://quizlet.com/18704471/simile-metaphor-personification-symbolism-with-examples-flash-cards/